Distinguishing real from fake ivory products by elemental analyses: A Bayesian hybrid classification method

Illegal killing of African elephants (Loxodonta africana, Loxodonta cyclotis) for ivory has been ongoing for decades [1,2], but currently is escalating in accordance with the higher price of ivory in local black markets [3]. The African elephant is listed in Appendix I of CITES, except populations in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, which are Appendix II because of larger population numbers. Most of Africa’s illegal ivory is exported as whole tusks to Asia, with China being the largest importer [4].

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